GeneMates: an R package for Detecting Horizontal Gene Co-transfer between Bacteria Using Gene-gene Associations Controlled for Population Structure

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria has been a global threat to public health for decades. A well-known driving force for the emergence, evolution and dissemination of genetic AMR determinants in bacterial populations is horizontal gene transfer, which is frequently mediated by mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Some MGEs can capture, maintain, and rearrange multiple AMR genes in a donor bacterium before moving them into recipients, giving rise to a phenomenon called horizontal gene co-transfer (HGcoT). This physical linkage or co-localisation between mobile AMR genes is of particular concern because it facilitates rapid dissemination of multidrug resistance within and across bacterial populations, providing opportunities for co-selection of AMR genes and limiting our therapeutic options. The study of HGcoT can be benefited from large-scale whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data, however, by far most published studies of HGcoT only consider simple co-occurrence measures, which can be confounded by strong bacterial population structure due to clonal reproduction, leading to spurious associations. To address this issue, we present GeneMates, an R package implementing a network approach to identification of HGcoT using WGS data. The package enables users to test for associations between presence-absence of bacterial genes using univariate linear mixed models controlling for population structure based on core-genome variation. Furthermore, when physical distances between genes of interest are measurable in bacterial genomes, users can evaluate distance consistency to further support their inference of putative horizontally co-transferred genes, whose co-occurrence cannot be completely explained by the population structure. We demonstrate how this package can be used to identify co-transferred AMR genes and recover known MGEs from <jats:italic>Escherichia coli</jats:italic> and <jats:italic>Salmonella</jats:italic> Typhimurium WGS data. GeneMates is accessible at <jats:ext-link xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://github.com/wanyuac/GeneMates">github.com/wanyuac/GeneMates</jats:ext-link>.</jats:p>